Introduction: Greek Antiquity

The Greek antiquity can be divided into various historical periods. In this blog, we provide a brief overview of the history of ancient Greece for each period.

The Mycenaean civilization was the last phase of the Bronze Age in Greece, lasting from approximately 1750 BC to 1050 BC. The Mycenaeans were a mix of Neolithic farmers and a Proto-Indo-European elite. The Mycenaean society is considered the first true Greek civilization on the mainland, with palace centers, urban structures, art, and the Linear B script, which represents the earliest form of the Greek language.

The Mycenaeans were heavily influenced by the Minoan culture on Crete and other Mediterranean civilizations, but developed their own complex society. The main city of the Mycenaean civilization was Mycenae, but other powerful centers included Pylos, Tiryns, and Thebes. These cities were the centers of power and culture in Mycenaean Greece.

The Mycenaeans were known for their innovations in various fields such as engineering, architecture, and military infrastructure. They built large forts and palaces, often on strategic heights, such as in Mycenae and Tiryns. Military power was an important aspect of society, with a warrior elite loyal to the wanax (the king).

The Mycenaean Greeks engaged in intensive trade across large parts of the Mediterranean. They maintained close ties with many other civilizations, including the Egyptians and the Hittites. In texts from Egypt and Asia Minor, the Mycenaean areas are referred to as "Danaya" and "Ahhiyawa," which refer to the Mycenaean kingdoms. These international contacts demonstrate the influence the Mycenaeans had in the Eastern Mediterranean.

The Late Bronze Age on the eastern side of the Mediterranean Sea was characterized by advanced civilizations with extensive trade networks and complex political systems. Cooperation between empires such as Troy, Egypt, the Hittites, the Mesopotamians, and the Mycenaeans fostered mutual dependence, but this made them vulnerable to disruptions. The collapse can thus be compared to that of the modern credit crisis (2007-2008 AD).

There are several theories about the cause of the collapse, such as climate change, volcanic eruptions, drought, disease, invasions by the Sea Peoples or Dorians, or the economic disruptions caused by the rise of ironworking. After the collapse, the change in metal technology led to the Iron Age.

According to the System Collapse Theory of Joseph Tainter, an increase in social complexity leads to societal collapse, as people revert to simpler ways of life. The complex politics, economy, and social organization of the Late Bronze Age made it difficult to rebuild society after a disruption.

Climate change brought drought to the eastern Mediterranean in the Late Bronze Age and caused a decrease in tree growth. Tree rings in Anatolia show a severe dry period from around 1198 to 1196 BC. Groundwater in the Dead Sea region also dropped drastically. Research indicates that the drought affected the sites associated with the downfall of the Bronze Age.

The collapse of the Late Bronze Age was a period of societal decline in the Mediterranean region around 1200 BC. It was particularly felt in Egypt, Anatolia, the Aegean Sea, Eastern Libya, and the Balkans. The collapse was sudden, violent, and caused cultural disruptions, leading to a sharp material decline and a decrease in population numbers. The collapse of the Late Bronze Age was linked to events such as the fall of Troy, the downfall of Mycenae and the Hittite Empire, and the chaos in Canaan.

The palace economy of the Mycenaean civilization, the Aegean region, and Anatolia disintegrated and transformed into the small, isolated village cultures of the Greek Dark Ages (ca. 1100-750 BC). The Proto-Indo-European Hittite Empire collapsed, while empires such as the Middle Assyrian Empire and the New Kingdom of Egypt survived in weakened forms. Other cultures, such as the Phoenicians, gained more autonomy due to the declining military presence of Egypt and Assyria.

The downfall of the Bronze Age is considered one of the worst disasters in ancient history. Many cultures remember this period as a "lost golden age." Only a few states survived the collapse, such as Assyria, Egypt, and the Phoenician city-states, but they were also weakened. By the end of 1200 BC, Assyria had weakened, while Phoenicia regained its independence. Smaller Aramean kingdoms emerged in the Levant, and the Philistines settled in Southern Canaan. Troy disappeared; the Iliad and Odyssey may possibly echo this distant past. 

The Greek Dark Ages, also known as the Post-Palatial Bronze Age (ca. 1200–1050 BC) and the Early Iron Age (ca. 1050–800 BC), mark a period of significant changes. 

From 1050–800 BC, there were four centers with larger populations: Lefkandi, Athens, Argos, and Knossos. Potters introduced simple geometric designs and improved their techniques. Around 900 BC, the Phoenician alphabet was adopted and adapted with vowels, leading to a new writing method that eventually also became the basic for the Latin alphabet.

Contrary to previous assumptions, there was more trade and cultural exchange with the East from 900 BC than previously thought, as evidenced by finds in Lefkandi. These contacts contributed to the economic recovery. Lefkandi is also known for a rich grave with horses and luxury goods, indicating social hierarchy.

Greeks lived in small communities, often organized around family groups (oikoi). Agriculture and crafts continued, but on a smaller scale. The use of iron increased, making weapons and tools more affordable. Economic recovery began in 800 BC, with greater trade and artistic expressions such as decorative pottery and bronze objects.

The archaic period lasted from ca. 800 BC to the second Persian invasion in 480 BC. During this period, the Greeks settled around the Mediterranean and the Black Sea and were part of an extensive trade network.

The period began with strong population growth and significant changes, including the rise of the poleis (city-states). According to Anthony Snodgrass, a "structural revolution" at the beginning and an intellectual revolution at the end marked this time. The archaic period laid the basic for the Classical period in political and cultural areas. Important developments included the Greek alphabet, early literature, monumental sculpture, red-figure pottery, and the rise of hoplite armies.

In Athens, early democratic institutions were introduced by Solon and further reformed by Cleisthenes. In Sparta, institutions such as the helot status and the Peloponnesian League emerged under the influence of Lycurgus, making Sparta a powerful player.

The archaic period saw the rise of the polis as the dominant political unit. Many cities came under the leadership of tyrants, and early laws and administrative systems emerged. Urbanization, such as synoikismos (the merging of settlements), reinforced this development. Cities like Athens and Argos united physically and politically, leading to the classical meaning of the polis.

From 700 BC, tyrannies emerged, where leaders seized power, often supported by private armies. Notable tyrants were Cypselus in Corinth and Theagenes in Megara. Although the word "tyrant" later acquired a negative connotation, these leaders were not seen as illegitimate at the time.

In 800-700 BC, the Greeks founded many colonies around the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. These colonies were independent city-states. The first colonies arose in Sicily and Southern Italy, known as Magna Graecia ("Great Greece"). Later, the Greeks also settled in the west (for example, Marseille) and the east (such as the Black Sea).

In the early Classical period, Athens was an important city, but it was not until the late sixth century BC that it became one of the most powerful cities in Greece. Around 636 BC, the first known event took place: a failed coup by Cylon, who wanted to become a tyrant of Athens. At that time, the monarchy was replaced by the archon, a significant position that could only be held by aristocrats (the Eupatridae).

In Athens, reforms were implemented in 594 BC, such as the abolition of debt slavery and the granting of citizenship based on basic of income instead of lineage, which promoted migration between different social strata. A people's assembly and a council of 400 were also established, giving citizens more influence. 

In 800 BC, Sparta developed a unique form of government. After the First Messenian War (740–720 BC), the Messenians became slaves (Helots). At the same time, Spartan officials, the ephors, gained more power. Around 560 BC, Sparta began a network of alliances, the Peloponnesian League, to prevent uprisings and combat rivals such as Argos.

The Greek population doubled around 800 BC, leading to larger settlements. Many people lived on small farms that cultivated diverse crops, such as grain, olives, and grapes. Trade also increased, especially with the East and Southern Italy. From 600 BC, coinage was introduced, simplifying trade and payments.

During the Archaic period, Greek art styles evolved into more realistic and natural forms. Monumental sculpture emerged, and pottery shifted from geometric patterns to the early red-figure technique. Eastern influences also became visible during this time, especially in pottery and sculptures. Initially, Greek sculpture consisted of small bronze statues of horses and humans, mostly found in religious sanctuaries. Later, human figures were made life-size from hard stone, inspired by Egyptian examples. The most famous sculptures from this period are the kouroi (young men) and korai (young women). These served as grave monuments or religious statues. By the end of 600 BC, the use of kouroi declined. Greek pottery developed from geometric patterns to figurative designs. In Corinth, the black-figure technique emerged around 700 BC, followed by the red-figure style in Athens around 525 BC. These techniques allowed for more detail in decoration.

The oldest Greek literature, primarily poetry, originates from this period and was a further development of the Indo-European bardic tradition. Homer's epics, such as the Iliad and the Odyssey, are the earliest preserved works. In addition to epic poetry, lyric poetry and the first beginnings of tragedy emerged. The earliest prose appeared around 600 BC. 

The Archaic period saw the rise of monumental stone temples, such as the Temple of Apollo in Corinth. These temples often housed cult statues. The number of offerings and votive statues, such as bronze figures, increased significantly. Sanctuaries like Olympia and Delphi became pan-Hellenic centers.

In Olympia, where the cult of Zeus had existed since the Dark Ages, the number of offerings grew explosively. This coincided with the revival of the Olympic Games in 776 BC.

Delphi became an important religious center, partly due to the development of the famous oracle. From 800 BC, offerings from all over Greece were brought to this place.

Greek funeral practices became more diverse. In Athens, cremation and burial alternated, often with simple grave offerings. Around 700 BC, cemeteries were designated outside the city. In some cities, such as Sparta, extravagant funerals were limited by legislation.

During this period, Greek philosophy developed and was documented. Thinkers like Thales combined practical knowledge with philosophical ideas.

The Greeks developed the hoplite shield. Around 700 BC, the characteristic phalanx tactics emerged. In naval warfare, the trireme (three rows of rowers) was introduced, further developing the Greek naval power.

The 5th century BC is primarily viewed from the Athenian perspective, as many stories, plays, and writings from that time originate from Athens. The century began with significant events such as the fall of the last Athenian tyrant and the reforms of Cleisthenes in 508 BC, and the Ionian Revolt in 500 BC, which led to the Persian invasions. Despite the conquest of parts of Greece, the Greeks defeated the Persians at Marathon (490 BC) and later at Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plataea (480-479 BC).

After the Persian Wars, Athens led the Delian League, which under Athenian control transformed into an empire. This caused tensions with allies and Sparta, which culminated in the Peloponnesian War in 431 BC. After a brief peace, the war resumed, and Sparta defeated Athens in 404 BC, marking the end of Athenian dominance.

Throughout its history, Sparta was governed by a diarchy, with two kings from the Agiad and Eurypontid dynasties. According to legends, these lines descended from the twins Eurysthenes and Procles, descendants of Hercules, who conquered Sparta after the Trojan War.

The Ionian revolt against the Persians (499-494 BC), supported by Athens, led to retaliatory actions by Persia. At the Battle of Marathon (490 BC), the Athenians defeated the Persians. In 480 BC, Xerxes attempted once again to conquer Greece, but 31 city-states resisted. Despite sacrifices such as at Thermopylae, the Greeks achieved major victories at Salamis and Plataea.

Athens then dominated the Delian League, causing tensions with Sparta. This led to the Peloponnesian War in 431 BC, which ended in a Spartan victory (405 BC) and the subjugation of Athens. After the war, Sparta was weakened by defeats against Thebes, including at Leuctra (371 BC), which made Messenia independent. Both Sparta and Thebes eventually lost their dominant position due to ongoing conflicts.

The power vacuum in Greece was filled by Macedonia under Philip II, who defeated the Greek city-states at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC and established the Corinthian League. However, Philip was assassinated in 336 BC, after which his son Alexander the Great continued his campaign against Persia. Alexander conquered Persia, defeated King Darius III, and even reached India. His sudden death in 323 BC ended his ambitions, but he left a lasting legacy in the form of Hellenism.

The Hellenistic period (323-30 BC) began with the death of Alexander the Great and ended with the death of Cleopatra VII, the last Macedonian ruler of Egypt. During this time, new monarchies emerged based on Macedonian and Eastern traditions. Alexander's generals, known as the Diadochi, divided his empire. Important kingdoms included those of Antigonus and his son Demetrius in Macedonia and Greece, Ptolemy in Egypt, and Seleucus in Syria and the former Persian Empire. Smaller realms included the Attalids in Anatolia and the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom.

The borders between the Hellenistic kingdoms were initially unstable. Antigonus attempted to expand his power but was defeated in 301 BC at the Battle of Ipsus. By the mid-third century BC, the borders were largely stable, although conflicts persisted. Meanwhile, cities like Alexandria and Antioch became important centers of Hellenistic culture. Many Greeks migrated to new cities in the east, such as the Indo-Greek Kingdom in Afghanistan and Pakistan.

Within Greece, the city-states formed two leagues: the Achaean League and the Aetolian League. These leagues were often in conflict and became involved in the wars of the Diadochi. The Antigonids came into conflict with Rome and were eventually defeated; Macedonia became part of the Roman Republic in 149 BC. The Seleucid Empire gradually disintegrated and was conquered by Rome in 64 BC. Ptolemaic Egypt lasted until 30 BC, when it too was annexed by the Romans.

With the Roman takeover of the Achaean League in 146 BC, the independence of Greece came to an end.